Heraclitus (c.540 BC – c.480 BC) hailed from Ephesus, a prominent Greek city of Ionia, though ruled by the Persians at the time. But his life and thought are shrouded in mystery.
As far as we know, this is the first time the word “kosmos” was used in a Greek text to mean what we mean today by “the world”.
We know little about his life, and he is said to have written only one book, which is now lost. His thoughts survive in about 100 short fragments quoted and attributed to him by later writers.
But these fragments are difficult to interpret. Heraclitus liked to present his ideas in a paradoxical way, as puzzles containing layers of meaning and hidden insights. Heraclitus has therefore been nicknamed “The Obscure” and “The Riddler”.
Some of his characteristic sayings include: “All things are one”, “Nature loves to hide”, “War is father of all and king of all”, “The way up and down is one and the same”, and “God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, satiety and hunger”.
In his view, the most basic material element of the universe is fire: “This world-order [kosmos], the same for all, no god or man did create, but it always was and is and will be fire ever-living, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures.”
As far as we know, this is the first time the word “kosmos” was used in a Greek text to mean what we mean today by “the world”.
Heraclitus is also famous for his ideas on change. He once wrote: “You could not step twice into the same river.”
There is some debate as to what exactly Heraclitus meant by this.
Plato explained this as follows: “Heraclitus, I believe, says that all things pass and nothing stays, and comparing existing things to the flow of a river, he says you could not step twice into the same river.” (Cratylus 402a)
On Plato’s reading, Heraclitus believes that everything is constantly changing and nothing remains the same. All is flux.
But for many contemporary scholars, Heraclitus’ point is that change and diversity do not prevent things from remaining the same, but are the very ingredients for the identity and constancy of things. Things stay the same only by changing, just as a river would not be a river unless different waters flow through it from one moment to the next.
Heraclitus was also known for his elitism. The ordinary folk, in his view, lack wisdom and prefer instead to “gorge themselves like cattle”. Even the leading thinkers of his day are criticised for seeing knowledge as nothing but the accumulation of information.
But for Heraclitus, “Sound thinking is the greatest virtue and wisdom: to speak the truth and to act on the basis of an understanding of the nature of things.”
Dr Nick Trakakis teaches Philosophy and Religious Studies at Monash and Deakin Universities. His most recent book is The End of Philosophy of Religion, published by Continuum in London.