One of Alexandros’s favourite generals, Lysimachus, of Thessalian origin and born in Pella, Alexander’s birthplace was a confidant of Alexander, conquered Thrace. A king who may not have been destined to rule as he was not a ‘pure’ Macedonian; but was determined to make every effort count as he sought to create his own history, albeit out of the shadows of Alexander.
Like his friend Alexander, he was educated by Aristotle in Pella. Lysimachus was trusted by Alexander as a bodyguard. His father was similarly a confidant of Philip II. During the India campaign of 324 BC, his courage and valour was on display as he protected his King and fought like a man possessed to defeat enemy tribes.
With the support of some of his Diadochi allies, Cassander, who acted as regent in Makedon, Ptolemy and Seleucus, he invaded Asia Minor in 302 and took most of it from Antigonus, demonstrating his skill at warfare.
The unlucky Diadochi general
Antigonus was the unlucky Diadochi general who had taken Asia Minor, which was bordered by all the realms of the Diadochi. Antigonus controlled most of Asia Minor excluding Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia, and had territory that reached as far as the borders of Egypt. In the Battles of Ipsus in 301 which involved Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus together with Lysimachus, Antigonus was defeated and killed. His short-lived kingdom was divided by the remaining Diadochi. Asia Minor was sandwiched between these power-hungry Hellenes, meaning it became a poisoned chalice for many a ruler. Antigonus’s son Demetrius had the last laugh as he invaded Macedon and took the throne (declared king by 294), whereby his successors held the position of King for many years with some interruptions recorded.
Lysimachus now had an expanded Kingdom that would have the same trouble as Antigonus. It was bounded by the ever-hungry Diadochi who were all growing in power. Lysimachus may have struggled with his human and social behaviour as he grew older; he was twice divorced before marrying for a third time, and stirred up trouble with Seleucus and in turn, with Demetrius in Macedon. A short while later he was defeated on the Danube by a local ruler, who generously allowed him to live.
This new lease of life meant that he felt invincible, resulting in a successful invasion of Macedon in 288 BC with the support of Epiros. Seven years later Seleucus invaded Asia Minor to support several revolting cities. Lysimachus was 80 at this stage of life; he was defeated and slain. The story I was told is that his dog faithfully protected his body for many days, no one dared go near his fallen master. His body was apparently buried in the city he founded in Thrace, Lysimachia.
Within the space of a few decades, most of Asia Minor had passed between two generals of the Alexander era, Antigonus and Lysimachus, who had proven to be able generals for Alexander. The former only tasted defeat in a pitched battle the day he died, whilst Lysimachus had possibly won an estimated one hundred battles and skirmishes in his life.
The end o a regime
The end of the Lysimachus regime brought to power one of his own generals, the Pontus born Philetaerus. He was in command at the city of Pergamon on the Aegean coast. The city had a strong treasury thanks to Lysimachus. A year prior to the death of Lysimachus, Philetaerus and Pergamon had defected to Seleucus after a fall out over Lysimachus’s treatment of his third wife.
Though nominally under the control of Seleucus, Philetaerus was able to gain control when Seleucus died a few months later. The wealth of Pergamon allowed the new ruler to build up prestige and importance as he spread goodwill across the Greek world. He became benefactor to many cities in Asia Minor and donated to temples at Delphi and Delos. He also gave immense support to Cyzicus when they were invaded by the Gauls.
His nephew Eumenes I succeeded him in 263 BC, the second in what would be seven relatively benign rulers. Each of the rulers either had the name of Eumenes or Attalus.
The Kingdom controlled around forty percent of Asia Minor at its extent. They were known for supporting the construction of religious and public buildings that can still be found in modern Turkey. By 133BC with the writing on the wall due to the ever-growing power of Rome and the hostile Greek realms that neighboured, the final official King of Pergamon, Attalus, died. He sought to avoid long drawn-out wars as he bequeathed the Kingdom to Rome. The Kingdom had been long term supporters of Rome, making the decision an easy one for Attalus.
The distance from Rome to Asia Minor in those days was considerable. Whilst the people waited for the Romans to arrive, Eumenes III emerged. His claim was that he was fathered by a previous king. Failing to gain much support from Greek cities along the coast, he gained support from the interior using the concept of freedom that Tiberius Gracchus had championed in Rome. Eumenes promised to liberate all serfs and slaves and create a free town for people if they fought in his service. He defeated a strong military invasion sent by Rome in 131, though he was finally captured two years later by the Romans who then executed him.
Asia Minor was such an important battle ground in the history of the world, not just for the Diadochi. Greek, Persian, Roman, Mongol, Armenian, Turkish and many more fought for their nations and their people here. Across the entire coast of Asia Minor and significant tracts across the interior, this was a Hellenic hub. It remained that way until the decline of the Ottoman Empire brought about a ruthless ethnic cleansing and genocide.
Asia Minor has also been home to Greek entities such as Commagene, Nicaea, Smyrna, Trebizond and Pontus.
During the wars of the Diadochi, the region was an easy meeting point for the generals to fight each other; for the region was bounded by Africa, Asia and of course the Greek heartland.
Lysimachus and his successors as well as the Seleucids and Ptolemy all made significant forays across the region post Alexander. Let us now turn our attention to Bithynia and then Paphlagonia. Each was situated on the north of Asia Minor along the Black Sea. Paphlagonia sat next to Pontus, whilst Bithynia was closest to the Bosporus where ancient Byzantium is found.
Bithynia seemed to have held its ground against Macedonian forces during the Alexandrian period. Their first ruler is mentioned in 435 BC, though not as a king. This title is first assumed in 297 by Zipoites who was in place for almost five decades. His successor was Nicomedes between 278–255 BC. He is famous for founding Nicomedia which would prove fortuitous in Byzantine times as a leading city.
With a mixture of Greek, Persian and tribes that were in place before Greek colonial expansion, the kingdom survived in the Hellenistic Era of constant wars. Time ran out for them against the expansionist Mithridates VI from Pontus. Like the Rhodesians when they needed support, they appealed to Rome who duly obliged. Rome did not want Pontus to grow stronger.
To keep the Pontians under pressure, the Bithynian king returned to the throne with the blessing of Rome. Like another regional kind, Attalus, he bequeathed his kingdom to Rome upon his death in 74 BC. One can only wonder why it was that several Greek monarchs gave their territory to the Romans over fellow Hellenes. Maybe they wanted to end up in Roman heaven, or they felt that Rome was too strong for other Hellenes to contend with.
Let’s not forget Paphlagonia
Moving along the Black Sea via a ship, one can reach Paphlagonia. Of all the realms in Asia Minor, Paphlagonia is perhaps the one that receives less attention and does not appear to have gained the attention of many historians, though Herodotus mentions that they were once part of the kingdom of Croesus. The territory came under the control of Alexander and his Hellenic successors. The region was allowed to be governed by locals on behalf of whichever Greek power that cared to control the area. It was essentially allowed to govern itself as long as it paid tribute or respect to the Hellenic powers such as the Seleucids or Pontus. The region is essentially covered by rugged terrain and mountains.
Strabo tells us that the limits of the terrain was traditionally bounded by rivers and inhabited by various ancient tribes. Homer has indicated that survivors of Troy may have settled here, whilst others have told of tales of Phoenicians settling here from Tyre in 1500 BC.
Mithridates I of Pontus subdued most of Paphlagonia during 301 except for the important Greek city of Sinope amongst other settlements. Sinope was ruled by Scydrothemis a tyrant – more or less.
The city of Sinope was famous for the eccentric yet brilliant Diogenes, the father of the Greek cynicism school of philosophy who was there during the invasion of Alexander.
In 183 BC Pharnaces of Pontus finally took the remainder of Paphlagonia, ending the independence of the kingdom.
The Hellenistic Era seemed to have an endless line of Greek kingdoms, Rome was on the horizon and coming for Greek ruled lands
Billy Cotsis is the author of Pyrrhus to Cyprus, Forgotten and Remembered Hellenic Kingdoms, Territories, Entities, and a Fiefdom
